tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-36888819885901071122024-02-20T07:35:08.624-08:00EnglandASIRIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17636241458666084264noreply@blogger.comBlogger12125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3688881988590107112.post-6979110444427181422009-11-01T09:27:00.000-08:002009-11-01T09:32:16.862-08:00England<p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;"><br /></p><table class="infobox geography vcard" style="width: 22em; font-size: 88%; font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;"><tbody><tr style="color: rgb(0, 0, 153);" class="adr"><th colspan="3" class="mergedtoprow fn org country-name" style="padding: 0.25em 0.33em 0.33em; line-height: 1.2em; font-size: 1.25em;" align="center">England</th> </tr> <tr class="mergedtoprow"> <td class="maptable" colspan="3" style="padding: 0.5em 0pt;" align="center"> <table style="background: transparent none repeat scroll 0% 0%; width: 100%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous;" align="center"> <tbody><tr> <td style="width: 130px; vertical-align: middle;" align="center"><span class="image"><img style="width: 313px; height: 191px;" alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/125px-Flag_of_England.svg.png" class="thumbborder" /></span></td> <td style="width: auto; vertical-align: middle;" align="center"><span class="image"><img style="width: 300px; height: 198px;" alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Royal_Standard_of_England.svg/120px-Royal_Standard_of_England.svg.png" /></span></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="font-style: italic; color: rgb(51, 51, 255);" align="center"><small>Flag</small></td> <td style="font-style: italic; color: rgb(51, 51, 255);" align="center"><small>Royal Standard</small></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-align: center;"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="anthem" colspan="3" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-align: center;"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="padding: 0.6em 0em; text-align: center;"> <div class="center"> <div class="floatnone"><span class="image"><img style="width: 385px; height: 291px;" alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Europe_location_ENG2.png/250px-Europe_location_ENG2.png" /></span></div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;"> is a country that is part of the United Kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west and the North Sea to the east, with the English Channel to the south separating it from continental Europe. The mainland of England consists of the central and southern part of the island of Great Britain in the <span class="mw-redirect">North Atlantic</span>, but England also includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly and the Isle of Wight.</p> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">The area now called England has been settled by people of various cultures for about 35,000 years,<sup id="cite_ref-tenthou_7-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> but it takes its name from the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes who settled during the 5th and 6th centuries. England became a unified state in AD 927, and since the Age of Discovery, which began during the 15th century, has had a significant cultural and legal impact on the wider world.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup>The English language, the Anglican Church, and English law—the basis for the common law <span class="mw-redirect">legal systems</span> of many other countries around the world—developed in England, and the country's parliamentary system of government has been widely adopted by other nations.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming the country into the world's first industrialised nation,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> and its Royal Society laid the foundations of modern experimental science.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">Most of England is lowland, but there are upland regions in the north (for example, the Lake District, Pennines, and <span class="mw-redirect">Yorkshire Moors</span>) and in the south and south west (for example, Dartmoor, the Cotswolds, and the North and South Downs). London, England's capital, is the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> England's population is about 51 million, around 84% of the population of the United Kingdom, and is largely concentrated in London, the South East and conurbations in the Midlands, the North West, the North East and Yorkshire, which developed as major industrial regions during the 19th century.</p> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">The Kingdom of England—which included Wales—was a sovereign state until 1 May 1707, when the Acts of Union put into effect the terms agreed in the Treaty of Union the previous year, resulting in a political union with the Kingdom of Scotland to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> In 1800, Great Britain was united with Ireland through another <span class="mw-redirect">Act of Union</span> to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State was established as a separate dominion, but the <span class="mw-redirect">Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act</span> in 1927 reincorporated into the kingdom six Irish counties to officially create the current United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.</p><h2 style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"><span class="mw-headline" id="Etymology">Etymology</span></h2> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">The name "England" is derived from the Old English word <i>Englaland</i>, which means "land of the Angles". The Angles were one of the <span class="mw-redirect">Germanic tribes</span> that settled in England during the Early Middle Ages. The Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> According to the <i>Oxford English Dictionary</i>, the first known use of "England" to refer to the southern part of the island of Great Britain occurs in 897, and its modern spelling was first used in 1538.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The earliest attested mention of the name occurs in the 1st century work by Tacitus, <i>Germania</i>, in which the Latin word <i>Anglii</i> is used.<sup id="cite_ref-Fordham_16-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars; it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an <i>angular</i> shape.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">The name <i>Albion</i> originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century <i>De Mundo</i>:<sup id="cite_ref-massey_18-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> "Beyond the Pillars of Hercules is the ocean that flows round the earth. In it are two very large islands called Britannia; these are Albion and Ierne".<sup id="cite_ref-massey_18-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The word <i>Albion</i> (Ἀλβίων) or <i>insula Albionum</i> has two possible origins. It either derives from the Latin <i>albus</i> meaning white, a reference to the white cliffs of Dover, which is the first view of Britain from the European Continent.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> An alternative origin is suggested by the ancient merchant's handbook <i>Massaliote Periplus</i> which mentions an "island of the <i>Albiones</i>".<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> <i>Albion</i> is now applied to England in a more poetic capacity.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Another romantic name for England is <span class="mw-redirect">Loegria</span>, related to the Welsh <i>Lloegr</i>, which is derived from <span class="mw-redirect">Arthurian legend</span>.</p><p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;"><br /></p>ASIRIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17636241458666084264noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3688881988590107112.post-44483674130138927052009-11-01T09:20:00.000-08:002009-11-01T09:27:06.856-08:00History<h3 style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"><span class="mw-headline" id="Prehistory_and_antiquity">Prehistory and antiquity</span></h3> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(51, 51, 255);" class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: Prehistoric Britain</div> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 385px; height: 259px;" alt="Sun shining through row of upright standing stones with other stones horizontally on the top." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Stonehenge_%28sun%29.jpg/180px-Stonehenge_%28sun%29.jpg" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> <span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">Stonehenge, a Neolithic monument</span></div> </div> </div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">The oldest proto-human bones discovered in the area date from 700,000 years ago. The discovery, of <i>Homo erectus</i> remains, was made in what is today Norfolk and Suffolk.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Modern humans first arrived in the area around 35,000 years ago;<sup id="cite_ref-tenthou_7-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> but due to the tough conditions of the Last Ice Age, known specifically in this area as the Devensian glaciation,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> they fled from Britain to the mountains of southern Europe. Only large mammals such as mammoths, bison and woolly rhinoceros remained.<sup id="cite_ref-tenthou_7-2" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Roughly 11,000 years ago, when the ice sheets began to recede, humans repopulated the area; genetic research suggests they came from the northern part of the Iberian Peninsula.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The sea level was lower than now, and Britain was connected by land to both Ireland and Eurasia. As the seas rose, it was separated from Ireland 9,000 years ago and from Eurasia half a century later.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Beaker culture arrived around 2500 BC, and the making of <span class="mw-redirect">food vessels</span> constructed out of clay and copper was introduced.<sup id="cite_ref-threethou_26-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> It was during this time that major Neolithic monuments such as Stonehenge and Avebury were constructed. By heating together tin and copper, both of which were in abundance in the area, the Beaker culture people were able to make bronze, and later iron from iron ores. They were able to spin and weave sheep's wool, from which they made clothing.<sup id="cite_ref-threethou_26-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 152px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 337px; height: 442px;" alt="Painting of woman, with outstretched arm, in white dress with red cloak and helmet, with other human figures to her right and below her to the left." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Queen_Boudica_by_John_Opie.jpg/150px-Queen_Boudica_by_John_Opie.jpg" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> <span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">Boudica led an uprising against the Roman Empire.</span></div> </div> </div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">During the Iron Age, Celtic culture, deriving from the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures, arrived from Central Europe. The development of iron smelting allowed the construction of better ploughs, advancing agriculture (for instance, with Celtic fields), as well as the production of more effective weapons.<sup id="cite_ref-threethou_26-2" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Brythonic was the spoken language during this time. Society was tribal; according to Ptolemy's <i><span class="mw-redirect">Geographia</span></i> there were around 20 different tribes in the area, however earlier divisions are unknown because the Britons were not literate. Like other regions on the edge of the Empire, Britain had long enjoyed trading links with the Romans. Julius Caesar of the Roman Republic attempted to invade twice in 55 BC; although largely unsuccessful, he managed to set up a client king from the Trinovantes. The Romans conquered Britain in AD 43 during the reign of <span class="mw-redirect">Emperor Claudius</span>, and the area was incorporated into the Roman Empire as <span class="mw-redirect">Britannia province</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><span>[</span>27<span>]</span></sup> The best known of the native tribes who attempted to resist were the Catuvellauni led by Caratacus. Later, an uprising led by Boudica, queen of the Iceni, resulted in her death at the Battle of Watling Street.<sup id="cite_ref-twothou_28-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> This era saw a <span class="mw-redirect">Greco-Roman</span> high culture prevail with the introduction of law and order, <span class="mw-redirect">Roman architecture</span>, personal hygiene, sewage systems, education, many agricultural items, and silk.<sup id="cite_ref-twothou_28-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> In the 3rd century, <span class="mw-redirect">Emperor Septimius Severus</span> died at York, where <span class="mw-redirect">Constantine</span> was subsequently proclaimed emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Christianity was first introduced around this time, though there are traditions linked to Glastonbury claiming an introduction through Joseph of Arimathea, while others claim through Lucius of Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> By 410, as their Empire declined, the Romans had left the island, to defend their frontiers in continental Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-twothou_28-2" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <h3 style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"><span class="mw-headline" id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</span></h3> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(51, 51, 255);" class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: England in the Middle Ages</div> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 162px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 374px; height: 344px;" alt="Studded and decorated metallic mask of human face." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Sutton_Hoo_replica_%28face%29.jpg/160px-Sutton_Hoo_replica_%28face%29.jpg" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> <span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">A 7th century ceremonial helmet from the Kingdom of East Anglia, found at Sutton Hoo</span></div> </div> </div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">Following the Roman retreat, Britain was left open to invasion by pagan, seafaring warriors such as Saxons and Jutes who gained control in areas around the south east.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The advance was contained for a while after the Britons' victory at the Battle of Mount Badon. The Sub-Roman Brythonic kingdoms in the north, later known collectively by British bards as the <i>Hen Ogledd</i>, were also gradually conquered by Angles during the 6th century. Reliable contemporary accounts from this period are scarce, as is archaeological evidence, giving rise to its description as a <span class="mw-redirect">Dark Age</span>. There are various conflicting theories on the extent and process of the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain; <span class="mw-redirect">Cerdic</span>, founder of the Wessex dynasty, may have been a Briton.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup>Nevertheless, by the 7th century a coherent set of Anglo-Saxon petty kingdoms known as the Heptarchy had emerged in southern and central Britain: Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex, and Wessex.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Christianity was introduced in the south by Augustine from Rome and in the north by Aidan from Ireland. This reintroduced Christianity, which was lost after the founding of the Heptarchy.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The title <i>Bretwalda</i>, meaning "Lord of the Britons", denoted the most influential kingship.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Northumbria and Mercia were the most dominant forces early on.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> However, following Viking conquests in the north and east, and the imposition of Danelaw, the premier English kingdom became Wessex under Alfred the Great. His grandson Athelstan unified England in 927, although this was only cemented after <span class="mw-redirect">Edred</span> defeated the Viking Eric Bloodaxe. King Cnut the Great briefly incorporated England into an empire which also included Denmark and <span class="mw-redirect">Norway</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup>However the Wessex dynasty was restored under Edward the Confessor.</p> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 192px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 470px; height: 360px;" alt="Painting of figures, on foot and horseback with swords and bows. In the background are water and buildings." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Agincour.JPG/190px-Agincour.JPG" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> <span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">Victory at the Battle of Agincourt, fought on </span><span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);" class="mw-redirect">Saint Crispin's Day</span></div> </div> </div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">England was conquered in 1066 by an army led by <span class="mw-redirect">William the Conquerer</span> from the Duchy of Normandy, a fief of the <span class="mw-redirect">Kingdom of France</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-normans_38-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The Normans themselves originated from Scandinavia and had settled in Normandy a few centuries earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-normans_38-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> They introduced feudalism and maintained power through barons, who set up castles across England.<sup id="cite_ref-normans_38-2" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The spoken language of the new aristocratic elite was <span class="mw-redirect">Norman French</span>, which would have considerable influence on the English language. The House of Plantagenet from Anjou inherited the English throne under Henry II, adding England to the budding Angevin Empire of fiefs the family had inherited in France including <span class="mw-redirect">Aquitaine</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-bartlett_39-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> They reigned for three centuries, proving noted monarchs such as Richard I, Edward I, Edward III and Henry V.<sup id="cite_ref-bartlett_39-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The period saw improvements in trade and legislation, including the signing of the <i>Magna Carta</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-normans_38-3" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Catholic monasticism flourished, providing philosophers and the universities of Oxford and Cambridge were founded with royal patronage. The Principality of Wales became a Plantagenet fief during the 13th century<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> and the Lordship of Ireland was gifted to the English monarchy by the Pope. During the 14th century, the Plantagenets and House of Valois both claimed to be legitimate claimants to House of Capet and with it France—the two powers clashed in the Hundred Years' War.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><span>[</span>41<span>]</span></sup> The Black Death epidemic hit England, starting in 1348, it eventually killed up to half of the countries inhabitants.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> From 1453 to 1487 civil war between two branches of the royal family occurred—the Yorkists and Lancastrians—known as the Wars of the Roses.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Eventually it led to the Yorkists losing the throne entirely to a Welsh noble family the <span class="mw-redirect">Tudors</span>, a branch of the Lancastrians headed by Henry Tudor who invaded with Welsh and Breton mercenaries, gaining victory at the Battle of Bosworth Field where the Yorkist king Richard III was killed.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <h3 style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_Modern">Early Modern</span></h3> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 152px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 395px; height: 492px;" alt="Painting of large bearded man with fur trimmed cloak, wearing a hat." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Portrait_of_King_Henry_VIII.jpg/150px-Portrait_of_King_Henry_VIII.jpg" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> became <span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">King Henry VIIISupreme Governor of the Church of England.</span></div> </div> </div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">The Tudor period would prove to be eventful.<sup id="cite_ref-fivehundred_46-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup>The Renaissance reached England through Italian courtiers, who reintroduced artistic, educational and scholary debate from classical antiquity.<sup id="cite_ref-fivehundred_46-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> During this time England began to develop <span class="mw-redirect">naval skills</span>, including inventing the theodolite and exploring to the West.<sup id="cite_ref-fivehundred_46-2" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The catalyst for such explorations, was the Ottoman Empire's control of the Mediterranean Sea, which blocked off trade with the East for the Christian states of Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-fivehundred_46-3" class="reference"><span>[</span>46<span>]</span></sup> Henry VIII broke from communion with the Catholic Church, over issues relating to divorce, under the Acts of Supremacy in 1534 which proclaimed the monarch head of the Church of England. Contrary to much of European Protestantism, the roots of the split were more political than theological.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><span>[</span>note 2<span>]</span></sup> Tudor also legally incorporated his ancestral land Wales into the Kingdom of England with the 1535–1542 acts. There were internal religious conflicts during the reigns of Henry's daughters; Mary I and Elizabeth I. The former attempted to bring the country back to Catholicism, while the later broke from it again more forcefully asserting the supremacy of Anglicanism.<sup id="cite_ref-fivehundred_46-4" class="reference"><span>[</span>46<span>]</span></sup> An English fleet under Francis Drake defeated an invading Spanish Armada during the <span class="mw-redirect">Elizabethan period</span>. Competing with Spain, the first English colony in the Americas was founded by explorer Walter Raleigh in 1585 and named Virginia.<sup id="cite_ref-fivehundred_46-5" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> With the East India Company, England also competed with the Dutch and French to the East.<sup id="cite_ref-fivehundred_46-6" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The nature of the island was changed, when the Stuart <span class="mw-redirect">King of Scotland</span>, from a kingdom which was previously a long time rival, inherited the throne of England—creating a personal union under James I in 1603.<sup id="cite_ref-Britons_49-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> He styled himself <span class="mw-redirect">King of Great Britain</span>, despite having no basis in English law.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 152px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 392px; height: 496px;" alt="Painting of seated male figure, with long black hair wearing a white cape and britches." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Charles_II_%281675%29.jpg/150px-Charles_II_%281675%29.jpg" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);" class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> The English Restoration restored the monarchy under King Charles II and peace after the English Civil War.</div> </div> </div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">Based on conflicting political, religious and social positions, there was an English Civil War between the supporters of Parliament and those of king Charles I, known as Roundheads and Cavaliers respectively. This was an interwoven part of the wider multifacited Wars of the Three Kingdoms, involving Scotland and Ireland. The Parliamentarians were victorious, Charles I was executed and the kingdom replaced with the Commonwealth. Leader of the Parliament forces, Oliver Cromwell declared himself Lord Protector in 1653, a period of personal rule followed.<sup id="cite_ref-Ocromwell_52-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup>By the time of Cromwell's death, England had largely grown weary of Puritan rule, many wanted to patch up old wounds and so Charles II was invited to return as monarch in 1660 with the Restoration.<sup id="cite_ref-twofivehundred_53-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> It was now constitutionally established that King and Parliament should rule together, though in practice this was not fully cemeted until the following century.<sup id="cite_ref-twofivehundred_53-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> With the founding of the Royal Society, science and the arts were encouraged.<sup id="cite_ref-twofivehundred_53-2" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The Great Fire of London in 1666 gutted the capital but it was rebuilt shortly after.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup>In Parliament two factions had emerged—the Tories and <span class="mw-redirect">Whigs</span>. The former were royalists while the latter were classical liberals. Though the Tories initially supported Catholic king James II, some of them, along with the Whigs deposed him at the Revolution of 1688 and invited Dutch prince William III to become monarch. Some English people, especially in the north were Jacobites and continued to support James and his sons. After the parliaments of England and Scotland both agreed,<sup id="cite_ref-unionwithscotland_55-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup>the two countries joined in political union, to create the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707.<sup id="cite_ref-Britons_49-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> To accomodate the union, institutions such as the law and national church of each remained separate.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <h3 style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"><span class="mw-headline" id="Late_Modern_and_contemporary">Late Modern and contemporary</span></h3> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 137px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 333px; height: 495px;" alt="A stone factory stands against a vivid blue sky, its reflection mirrored in the waters below." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Saltaire_New_Mill_Reflected.jpg/135px-Saltaire_New_Mill_Reflected.jpg" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> <span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">The World Heritage Site — Saltaire, West Yorkshire is a model mill town from the Industrial Revolution.</span></div> </div> </div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">Under the newly formed Kingdom of Great Britain, output from the Royal Society and other <span class="mw-redirect">English initiatives</span> combined with the Scottish Enlightenment to create innovations in science and engineering. This paved the way for the establishment of the British Empire, which became the largest in history.<sup id="cite_ref-twofivehundred_53-3" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Domestically it drove the Industrial Revolution, a period of profound change in the socioeconomic and cultural conditions of England, resulting in industrialised agriculture, manufacture, engineering and mining, as well as new and pioneering road, rail and water networks to facilitate their expansion and development.<sup id="cite_ref-twofivehundred_53-4" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The opening of northwest England's Bridgewater Canal in 1761 ushered in the canal age in Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-Briton20015_57-0" class="reference"><span>[</span>56<span>]</span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><span>[</span>57<span>]</span></sup> In 1825 the world's first permanent steam locomotive-hauled passenger railway—the Stockton and Darlington Railway—opened to the public.<sup id="cite_ref-Briton20015_57-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> During the Industrial Revolution, many workers moved from England's countryside to new and expanding urban industrial areas to work in factories, for instance at Manchester and Birmingham, dubbed "Warehouse City" and "Workshop of the World" respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> England maintained relative stability throughout the French Revolution; William Pitt the Younger was British Prime Minister for the reign of George III. During the Napoleonic Wars, Napoleon Bonaparte planned to invade from the south-east. However this failed to manifest and the Napoleonic forces were defeated by the British at sea by Lord Nelson and on land by the Duke of Wellington.<sup id="cite_ref-twofivehundred_53-5" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The Napoleonic Wars fostered a concept of Britishness and a united national British people, shared with the Scots and Welsh.<sup id="cite_ref-Colley1_61-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 142px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 382px; height: 570px;" alt="A cuboid granite cenotaph, flanked by red wreaths." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Cenotaph_London.jpg/140px-Cenotaph_London.jpg" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> <span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">The Cenotaph at Whitehall is a memorial to members of the British Armed Forces who died during the two World Wars.</span></div> </div> </div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">London became the largest and most populous metropolitan area in the world during the Victorian era, and trade within the British Empire—as well as the standing of the British military and navy—was prestigious.<sup id="cite_ref-onefivehundred_62-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Political agitation at home from radicals such as the Chartists and the suffragettes enabled legislative reform and universal suffrage.<sup id="cite_ref-twofivehundred_53-6" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Power shifts in east-central Europe led to World War I; thousands of English soldiers died in trenches fighting for the United Kingdom as part of the Allies.<sup id="cite_ref-onefivehundred_62-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Two decades later, in World War II, the United Kingdom again fought for the Allies. Winston Churchill was the wartime Prime Minister.<sup id="cite_ref-fifty_63-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup>Developments in warfare technology saw many cities damaged by air-raids during The Blitz.<sup id="cite_ref-fifty_63-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Following the war the British Empire experienced rapid <span class="mw-redirect">decolonisation</span>, as well as a series of technological innovations—automobiles became the primary means of transport and Whittle's development of the jet engine led to wider air travel.<sup id="cite_ref-fifty_63-2" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Since the 20th century there has been significant population movement to England, mostly from other parts of the British Isles, but also from the Commonwealth, particularly the Indian subcontinent.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Since the 1970s there has been a large move away from manufacturing and an increasing emphasis on the <span class="mw-redirect">service industry</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-thatcher_65-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> As part of the United Kingdom, the area joined a <span class="mw-redirect">common market</span> initiative called the European Economic Community which became the European Union. Since the late 20th century the administration of the United Kingdom has moved towards devolved governance in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup>England and Wales continues to exist as a legal entity within the United Kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-BBC_Wales_67-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Devolution has stimulated a greater emphasis on a more English-specific identity and patriotism.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ward180_69-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> There is no devolved English government, but an attempt to create a similar system on a sub-regional basis was rejected by referendum.<sup id="cite_ref-refreject_70-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p>ASIRIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17636241458666084264noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3688881988590107112.post-90530318807693522792009-11-01T09:16:00.001-08:002009-11-01T09:19:51.268-08:00Governance<h3 style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"><span class="mw-headline" id="Politics">Politics</span></h3> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(51, 51, 255);" class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: Politics of England</div> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 202px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 505px; height: 381px;" alt="Photograph of rectangular floodlight building, reflected in water. The building has multiple towers including one at each end. The tower on the right includes an illuminated clock face." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Palace_of_Westminster_at_sunset.jpg/200px-Palace_of_Westminster_at_sunset.jpg" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> <span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">Palace of Westminster, the seat of the Parliament of the United Kingdom</span></div> </div> </div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">As part of the United Kingdom, the basic political system in England is a constitutional monarchy and <span class="mw-redirect">parliamentary democracy</span>. There has not been a <span class="mw-redirect">Government of England</span> since 1707, when the Acts of Union 1707, putting into effect the terms of the Treaty of Union, joined England and Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-unionwithscotland_55-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Before the union England was ruled by its monarch and the Parliament of England. Today England is governed directly by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, although other countries of the United Kingdom have devolved governments.<sup id="cite_ref-Devolution_71-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> In the House of Commons which is the lower house of the British Parliament based at the Palace of Westminster, there are 529 Members of Parliament for constituencies in England, out of the 646 total.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> In the United Kingdom general election, 2005 the Labour Party had the most MPs elected in England with 284, while the Conservative Party had 194 MPs elected although they received a larger percentage of the <span class="mw-redirect">popular vote</span> than any other party with 35.7%.<sup id="cite_ref-electionresults_73-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The third largest party are the Liberal Democrats who had 47 MPs elected. <span class="mw-redirect">Respect</span> and Health Concern each have one MP, and there is an <span class="mw-redirect">Independent Labour</span> member originally elected for Labour.<sup id="cite_ref-electionresults_73-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The two largest parties are led by Gordon Brown for Labour and David Cameron for the Conservatives.</p> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 192px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 406px; height: 307px;" alt="Lines of men wearing large black bearskin hats and red tunics." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Changing_of_the_Guard%2C_Buckingham_Palace.jpg/190px-Changing_of_the_Guard%2C_Buckingham_Palace.jpg" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);" class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> Changing of the Queen's Guard at the <span class="mw-redirect">royal residence</span>, Buckingham Palace</div> </div> </div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">As the United Kingdom is a member of the European Union, there are elections held regionally in England to decide who is sent as <span class="mw-redirect">Members of the European Parliament</span>. The 2009 European Parliament election saw the regions of England elect the following MEPs: twenty-three Conservatives, ten Labour, nine United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP), nine Liberal Democrats, two <span class="mw-redirect">Greens</span> and two British National Party (BNP).<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Since devolution, in which other countries of the United Kingdom—Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland—each have their own devolved parliament or assemblies for local issues, there has been debate about how to counterbalance this in England. Originally it was planned that various regions of England would be devolved, but this was rejected in a referendum.<sup id="cite_ref-refreject_70-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> One major issue is the West Lothian question, in which MPs from Scotland and Wales are able to vote on legislation affecting only England, while English MPs have no equivalent right to legislate on devolved matters.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> This when placed in the context of England being the only country of the United Kingdom not to have free cancer treatment, prescriptions, residential care for the elderly and free top-up university fees,<sup id="cite_ref-msnmoney_76-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> has led to a steady rise in English nationalism.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Some have suggested the creation of a devolved English parliament,<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> while others have proposed simply limiting voting on legislation which only effects England to English MPs.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <h3 style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"><span class="mw-headline" id="Law">Law</span></h3> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(51, 51, 255);" class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: English law</div> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 192px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 455px; height: 344px;" alt="Ornate grey stone building with multiple turrets and arched windows." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Royal_courts1.jpg/190px-Royal_courts1.jpg" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);" class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> The Royal Courts of Justice</div> </div> </div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">The English law legal system, developed over the centuries, is the foundation of many <span class="mw-redirect">legal systems</span> throughout the Anglosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><span>[</span>79<span>]</span></sup> Despite now being part of the United Kingdom, the legal system of the Courts of England and Wales continued as a separate legal system to the one used in Scotland as part of the Treaty of Union. The general essence of English law is that it is made by judges sitting in courts, applying their common sense and knowledge of <span class="mw-redirect">legal precedent</span>—<i>stare decisis</i>—to the facts before them.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><span>[</span>80<span>]</span></sup> The court system is headed by the Supreme Court of Judicature, consisting of the Court of Appeal, the High Court of Justice for civil cases and the Crown Court for criminal cases.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><span>[</span>81<span>]</span></sup> The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is the highest court for criminal and civil cases in England and Wales, it was created in 2009 after constitutional changes, taking over the judicial functions of the House of Lords.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> A decision of the highest <span class="mw-redirect">appeal court</span> in England and Wales, the Supreme Court, is binding on every other court in the hierarchy, which follow its directions.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Crime increased between 1981–1995, though since then there has been 42% fall in crime for the period 1995–2006.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The prison population doubled over the same period, giving it the highest incarceration rate in Western Europe at 147 per 100,000.<sup id="cite_ref-crimebbc_86-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Her Majesty's Prison Service reporting to the Ministry of Justice, manages most <span class="mw-redirect">prisons</span>, housing over 80,000 convicts.<sup id="cite_ref-crimebbc_86-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <h3 style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"><span class="mw-headline" id="Regions.2C_counties_and_districts">Regions, counties and districts</span></h3> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: Subdivisions of England</div> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="rellink boilerplate seealso">See also: Regions of England, Counties of England, and Districts of England</div> <div class="nounderlines" style="border: medium none ; width: 230px; float: right; clear: right; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;"> <div style="position: relative;"> <div style=""><span class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Ceremonial_counties_of_England.svg/230px-Ceremonial_counties_of_England.svg.png" width="230" height="282" /></span></div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 114px; top: 12px;">Northumberland</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 124px; top: 36px;">Tyne and Wear</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 124px; top: 52px;">Durham</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 54px; top: 52px;">Cumbria</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 54px; top: 92px;">Lancashire</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 114px; top: 72px;">North Yorkshire</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 154px; top: 87px;">E. Riding of Yorks.</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 134px; top: 107px;">S. Yorks.</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 114px; top: 92px;">W. Yorks.</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 84px; top: 108px;">Gr. Manc.</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 59px; top: 112px;">Mers.</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 69px; top: 122px;">Cheshire</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 114px; top: 127px;">Derbs.</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 139px; top: 122px;">Notts.</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 164px; top: 117px;">Lincolnshire</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 152px; top: 144px;">Rutland</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 129px; top: 147px;">Leics.</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 104px; top: 142px;">Staffs.</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 44px; top: 142px;">Shropshire</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 69px; top: 172px;">Heref.</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 94px; top: 167px;">Worcs.</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 94px; top: 155px;">W. Mids.</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 121px; top: 167px;">Warks.</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 139px; top: 164px;">Northants.</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 154px; top: 156px;">Cambs.</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 194px; top: 144px;">Norfolk</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 199px; top: 164px;">Suffolk</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 184px; top: 187px;">Essex</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 159px; top: 185px;">Herts.</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 159px; top: 174px;">Beds.</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 159px; top: 202px;">Gr. London</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 187px; top: 215px;">Kent</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 179px; top: 232px;">E. Sussex</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 148px; top: 215px;">Surrey</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 138px; top: 232px;">W. Sussex</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 131px; top: 204px;">Berkshire</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 144px; top: 189px;">Bucks.</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 119px; top: 193px;">Oxon.</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 94px; top: 187px;">Glos.</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 84px; top: 204px;">Bristol</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 118px; top: 222px;">Hampshire</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 94px; top: 212px;">Wiltshire</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 69px; top: 222px;">Somerset</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 114px; top: 242px;">Isle of Wight</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 89px; top: 234px;">Dorset</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 49px; top: 237px;">Devon</div> </div> <div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; text-align: center; left: 14px; top: 252px;">Cornwall</div> </div> </div> </div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">The subdivisions of England consist of as many as four levels of subnational division controlled through a variety of types of administrative entites. They have been created for the purposes of local government in England. The highest tier of local government are the nine regions of England—North East, North West, Yorkshire and the Humber, East Midlands, West Midlands, East, South East, South West and Greater London. These were created in 1994 as Government Offices, used by the British Government to deliver a wide range of policies and programmes regionally.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> They are used for electing <span class="mw-redirect">Members of the European Parliament</span> on a regional basis. After devolution began to take place in other parts of the United Kingdom it was planned that referendums for the regions of England would take place for their own regional assemblies as a counterweight. London accepted in 1998—the London Assembly was created two years later. However, the proposal was rejected by the northern England devolution referendums, 2004 in the North East, further referendums were cancelled.<sup id="cite_ref-refreject_70-2" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> There are plans to abolish the remaining regional assemblies in 2010 and transfer their functions to respective <span class="mw-redirect">Regional Development Agencies</span> and new system of Local Authority Leaders’ Boards.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">Below the regional level all of England is divided into one of 48 ceremonial counties.<sup id="cite_ref-britannicagov_89-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> These counties are used primarily as a geographical frame of reference and have developed gradually since the Middle Ages, with some established as recently as 1974.<sup id="cite_ref-maud_90-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Each has a Lord Lieutenant and High Sheriff; these posts are used to represent the <span class="mw-redirect">British monarch</span> locally.<sup id="cite_ref-britannicagov_89-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup>Outside Greater London and the Isles of Scilly, England is also divided into 83 metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties; these correspond to areas used for the purposes of local government<sup id="cite_ref-localgov_91-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> and may consist of a single district or be divided into several. There are six metropolitan counties which are based on the most heavily urbanised areas and do not have county councils.<sup id="cite_ref-localgov_91-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> In these areas the principle authorities are the councils of the subdivisions, the metropolitan boroughs. 27 non-metropolitan "shire" counties have a county council and are divided into districts, each with a district council. They are typically, though not always, found in more rural areas. The remaining non-metropolitan counties are of a single district and usually correspond to large towns or counties with low populations; they are known as unitary authorities. Greater London has a different system for local governance, with thirty-two London boroughs and the City of London covering a small area at the core, which is governed by the City of London Corporation.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> At the most localised level, much of England is divided into civil parishes with councils; they do not exist in Greater London.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p>ASIRIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17636241458666084264noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3688881988590107112.post-64980647016395702532009-11-01T09:12:00.000-08:002009-11-01T09:16:29.915-08:00Geography<h3 style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"><span class="mw-headline" id="Landscape_and_rivers">Landscape and rivers</span></h3> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 202px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 419px; height: 281px;" alt="Blue lake between green hills." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Wastwater%2C_Lake_District.jpg/200px-Wastwater%2C_Lake_District.jpg" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);" class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> <span class="mw-redirect">Wastwater</span> in the Lake District</div> </div> </div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">Geographically England comprises the central and southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain, plus such offshore islands as the Isle of Wight and the Isles of Scilly. It is bordered by two fellow countries of the United Kingdom—<span class="mw-redirect">to the north</span> by Scotland and <span class="mw-redirect">to the west</span> by Wales. England is closer to the European Continent than any other part of mainland Britain. It is separated from France by a 34-kilometre (21 mi)<sup id="cite_ref-Engchannel_94-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> sea gap, though the two countries are connected by the Channel Tunnel near Folkestone.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><span>[</span>94<span>]</span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><span>[</span>95<span>]</span></sup> As England is on an island, is it surrounded by the water of the Irish Sea, North Sea and Atlantic Ocean. The most important <span class="mw-redirect">rivers in England</span>, because of their ports of London, Liverpool, and Newcastle, are the tidal rivers Thames, Mersey and Tyne.<sup id="cite_ref-rivershills_97-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The tides raise the level of water in their estuaries and enable ships to enter the ports. At 354 kilometres (220 mi), the Severn is the longest river flowing through England. It empties into the Bristol Channel and is notable for its <span class="mw-redirect">Severn Bore</span> tidal waves, which can reach 2 metres (6.6 ft) in height.<sup id="cite_ref-rivershills_97-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup>However, the longest river entirely in England is the Thames, which is 346 kilometres (215 mi) in length.<sup id="cite_ref-Thames_98-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup>There are many <span class="mw-redirect">lakes in England</span> but the majority are in the aptly named Lake District; the largest of which is <span class="mw-redirect">Lake Windermere</span>, it is known by the nickname "Queen of Lakes".<sup id="cite_ref-rivershills_97-2" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 202px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 403px; height: 270px;" alt="Green hills with trees in the foreground." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Widecombe_in_the_Moor%2C_Devon.jpg/200px-Widecombe_in_the_Moor%2C_Devon.jpg" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);" class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> Terrain of Dartmoor, Devon</div> </div> </div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">The Pennines, known as the backbone of England, is the oldest mountain range in the country, originating from the end of the <span class="mw-redirect">Paleozoic Era</span> around 300 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The total length of the Pennines is 400 kilometres (250 mi), peaking at Cross Fell in Cumbria.<sup id="cite_ref-rivershills_97-3" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup>The material of which they are composed is mostly sandstone and limestone, but also coal. There are <span class="mw-redirect">karst</span> landscapes in calcite areas such as parts of Yorkshire and Derbyshire. The Pennine landscape is high moorland in upland areas, indented by fertile valleys of the region's rivers.<sup id="cite_ref-rivershills_97-4" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> They contain three <span class="mw-redirect">national parks</span>, the <span class="mw-redirect">Yorkshire Dales</span>, Northumberland, and the <span class="mw-redirect">Peak District</span>. The highest point in England, at 978 metres (3,210 ft), is Scafell Pike in Cumbria.<sup id="cite_ref-rivershills_97-5" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Straddling the border between England and Scotland are the Cheviot Hills. The English Lowlands are to the south of the Pennines, consisting of green rolling hills, including the <span class="mw-redirect">Cotswold Hills</span>, Chiltern Hills, North and South Downs—where they meet the sea they form white rock exposures such as the <span class="mw-redirect">cliffs of Dover</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-rivershills_97-6" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The granitic Southwest Peninsula in the West Country provides upland moorland, such as Dartmoor and Exmoor, which flourish with a mild climate; both are national parks.<sup id="cite_ref-rivershills_97-7" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <h3 style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"><span class="mw-headline" id="Climate">Climate</span></h3> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(51, 51, 255);" class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <span class="mw-redirect">Climate of England</span></div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">England has a <span class="mw-redirect">temperate</span> <span class="mw-redirect">maritime climate</span> meaning that it is mild with temperatures not much lower than 0 °C (32 °F) in winter and not much higher than 32 °C (90 °F) in summer.<sup id="cite_ref-weather_100-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The weather is damp relatively frequently and is subject to change. The coldest months are January and February, the latter particularly on the English coast, while July is normally the warmest month. Months with mild to warm weather with least rainfall are May, June, September and October.<sup id="cite_ref-weather_100-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The biggest influences on the climate of England comes from the proximity to the Atlantic Ocean, its northern latitude and warming of the waters around the Gulf Stream.<sup id="cite_ref-weather_100-2" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> England receives quite a significant proportion of rainfall during the year, with autumn and winter being the wettest time—geographically the Lake District receives more rain than anywhere else in the country.<sup id="cite_ref-weather_100-3" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Since weather recording records began, the highest temperature received was 38.5 °C (101.3 °F) on 10 August 2003 at Brogdale in Kent,<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> while the lowest was −26.1 °C (−15 °F) on 10 January 1982 in Edgmond, Shropshire.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <table id="collapsibleTable0" class="wikitable collapsible" style="margin: auto; width: 90%; text-align: center; font-size: 90%; line-height: 1.1em; font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="14"><span class="collapseButton">[hide]</span>Weather data for England</th> </tr> <tr> <th>Month</th> <th abbr="January">Jan</th> <th abbr="February">Feb</th> <th abbr="March">Mar</th> <th abbr="April">Apr</th> <th abbr="May">May</th> <th abbr="June">Jun</th> <th abbr="July">Jul</th> <th abbr="August">Aug</th> <th abbr="September">Sep</th> <th abbr="October">Oct</th> <th abbr="November">Nov</th> <th abbr="December">Dec</th> <th style="border-left-width: medium;">Year</th> </tr> <tr> <th height="16">Average high °C (°F)</th> <td style="background: rgb(255, 255, 153) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">7<br />(45)</td> <td style="background: rgb(255, 255, 153) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">7<br />(45)</td> <td style="background: rgb(255, 204, 102) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">9<br />(48)</td> <td style="background: rgb(255, 165, 0) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">12<br />(54)</td> <td style="background: rgb(255, 153, 0) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">15<br />(59)</td> <td style="background: rgb(255, 140, 0) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">18<br />(64)</td> <td style="background: rgb(255, 100, 0) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">21<br />(70)</td> <td style="background: rgb(255, 100, 0) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">21<br />(70)</td> <td style="background: rgb(255, 140, 0) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">18<br />(64)</td> <td style="background: rgb(255, 165, 0) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">14<br />(57)</td> <td style="background: rgb(255, 204, 102) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">10<br />(50)</td> <td style="background: rgb(255, 255, 153) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">7<br />(45)</td> <td style="background: rgb(255, 165, 0) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center; border-left-width: medium;">13<br />(55)</td> </tr> <tr> <th height="16">Average low °C (°F)</th> <td style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">1<br />(34)</td> <td style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">1<br />(34)</td> <td style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">2<br />(36)</td> <td style="background: rgb(255, 255, 204) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">4<br />(39)</td> <td style="background: rgb(255, 255, 153) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">6<br />(43)</td> <td style="background: rgb(255, 204, 102) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">9<br />(48)</td> <td style="background: rgb(255, 204, 102) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">11<br />(52)</td> <td style="background: rgb(255, 204, 102) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">11<br />(52)</td> <td style="background: rgb(255, 204, 102) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">9<br />(48)</td> <td style="background: rgb(255, 255, 153) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">7<br />(45)</td> <td style="background: rgb(255, 255, 204) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">4<br />(39)</td> <td style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">2<br />(36)</td> <td style="background: rgb(255, 255, 153) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center; border-left-width: medium;">6<br />(43)</td> </tr> <tr> <th height="16">Precipitation mm (inches)</th> <td style="background: rgb(80, 100, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">84<br />(3.31)</td> <td style="background: rgb(120, 140, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">60<br />(2.36)</td> <td style="background: rgb(120, 140, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">67<br />(2.64)</td> <td style="background: rgb(140, 160, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">57<br />(2.24)</td> <td style="background: rgb(140, 160, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">56<br />(2.2)</td> <td style="background: rgb(120, 140, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">63<br />(2.48)</td> <td style="background: rgb(140, 160, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">54<br />(2.13)</td> <td style="background: rgb(120, 140, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">67<br />(2.64)</td> <td style="background: rgb(100, 120, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">73<br />(2.87)</td> <td style="background: rgb(80, 100, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">84<br />(3.31)</td> <td style="background: rgb(80, 100, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">84<br />(3.31)</td> <td style="background: rgb(60, 80, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); font-size: 85%; text-align: center;">90<br />(3.54)</td> <td style="background: rgb(120, 140, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 85%; text-align: center; border-left-width: medium;">838<br />(32.99)</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="14" style="text-align: center; font-size: 88%;"><i>Source: Met Office<sup id="cite_ref-england_103-0" class="reference"><span>[</span>102<span>]</span></sup> 19 February 2008</i></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <h3 style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"><span class="mw-headline" id="Major_conurbations">Major conurbations</span></h3> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(51, 51, 255);" class="rellink boilerplate seealso">See also: List of places in England</div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">The Greater London Urban Area is by far the largest metropolitan area in England<sup id="cite_ref-largesturb_104-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> and one of the busiest cities in the world. It is considered a global city and has a population larger than other countries in the United Kingdom besides England itself.<sup id="cite_ref-largesturb_104-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Other urban areas of considerable size and influence tend to be in northern England or the English Midlands.<sup id="cite_ref-largesturb_104-2" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> There are fifty settlements which have been designated city status in England, while the wider United Kingdom has sixty-six. While many cities in England are quite large in size, such as Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds, Newcastle, Bradford, Nottingham and others, a large population is not necessarily a prerequisite for a settlement to be afforded city status.<sup id="cite_ref-cathcities_105-0" class="reference"><span>[</span>104<span>]</span></sup> Traditionally the status was afforded to towns with <span class="mw-redirect">diocesan cathedrals</span> and so there are smaller cities like Wells, Ely, Ripon, Truro and Chichester.<sup id="cite_ref-cathcities_105-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> According to the Office for National Statistics the ten largest, continuous built-up urban areas <sup id="cite_ref-largesturb_104-3" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p>ASIRIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17636241458666084264noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3688881988590107112.post-5556473432103132992009-11-01T09:07:00.000-08:002009-11-01T09:12:08.411-08:00Economy<p style="font-weight: bold; font-family: georgia;">England's economy is one of the largest in in the world, with an average <span class="mw-redirect">GDP per capita</span> of £22,907.<sup id="cite_ref-regionalacc_109-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Usually regarded as a mixed market economy, it has adopted many free market principles in contrast to the Rhine Capitalism of Europe, yet maintains an advanced social welfare infrastructure.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><span>[</span>109<span>]</span></sup> The official currency in England is the pound sterling, also known as the GBP. <span class="mw-redirect">Taxation in England</span> is quite competitive when compared to much of the rest of Europe—as of 2009 the basic rate of personal tax is 20% on taxable income up to £37,400, and 40% on any additional earnings above that amount.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The economy of England is the largest part of the UK's economy,<sup id="cite_ref-regionalacc_109-1" class="reference"><span>[</span>108<span>]</span></sup> which has the 18th highest GDP PPP per capita in the world. England is a leader in the chemical and pharmaceutical sectors and in key technical industries, particularly aerospace, the arms industry, and the manufacturing side of the software industry. London, home to the London Stock Exchange, the UK's main stock exchange and the largest in Europe, is England's financial centre—100 of Europe's 500 largest corporations are based in London.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> London is the largest financial centre in Europe, and as of 2009 is also the largest in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <div style="font-weight: bold; font-family: georgia;" class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 429px; height: 289px;" alt="A silver coloured car." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/AM_V8_Vantage_IAA_2005.jpg/180px-AM_V8_Vantage_IAA_2005.jpg" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> <span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">Aston Martin is a well known English automobile company.</span></div> </div> </div> <p style="font-weight: bold; font-family: georgia;">The Bank of England, founded in 1694 by Scottish banker William Paterson, is the UK's central bank. Originally instituted to act as private banker to the Government of England, it carried on in this role as part of the United Kingdom—since 1946 it has been a <span class="mw-redirect">state-owned institution</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The Bank has a monopoly on the issue of banknotes in England and Wales, although not in other parts of the United Kingdom. Its Monetary Policy Committee has devolved responsibility for managing the monetary policy of the country and setting interest rates.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> England is highly industrialised, but since the 1970s there has been a decline in traditional heavy and manufacturing industries, and an increasing emphasis on a more <span class="mw-redirect">service industry</span> oriented economy.<sup id="cite_ref-thatcher_65-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup>Tourism has become a significant industry, attracting millions of visitors to England each year. The export part of the economy is dominated by <span class="mw-redirect">pharmaceuticals</span>, <span class="mw-redirect">automobiles</span>—although many English marques are now foreign-owned, such as Rolls-Royce, Lotus, Jaguar and Bentley—<span class="mw-redirect">crude oil</span> and petroleum from the English parts of <span class="mw-redirect">North Sea Oil</span> along with Wytch Farm, aircraft engines and alcoholic beverages.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Agriculture is intensive and highly mechanised, producing 60% of food needs with only 2% of the labour force.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Two thirds of production is devoted to livestock, the other to arable crops.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <h3 style="font-weight: bold; font-family: georgia; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"><span class="mw-headline" id="Infrastructure">Infrastructure</span></h3> <div style="font-weight: bold; font-family: georgia;" class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: Transport in England and Healthcare in England</div> <div style="font-weight: bold; font-family: georgia;" class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 202px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 409px; height: 274px;" alt="Red two-storey vehicle with windows on each level." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Red_double_decker_bus_in_London.jpg/200px-Red_double_decker_bus_in_London.jpg" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> <span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">Red double-decker bus</span> in London</div> </div> </div> <p style="font-weight: bold; font-family: georgia;">The Department for Transport is the government body responsible for overseeing transport in England. There are several motorways in England, one of the most important trunk roads is the A1 Great North Road, stretching across the country from London to Newcastle.<sup id="cite_ref-roads_119-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The longest motorway in England is the M6, stretching from Rugby to the North West up to the Anglo-Scottish border.<sup id="cite_ref-roads_119-1" class="reference"><span>[</span>118<span>]</span></sup> There are other major roads; the M1 from London to Leeds, the M25 which encircles London, the M60 which encircles Manchester, the M4 from London to South Wales, the M62 from Liverpool to Manchester and East Yorkshire and the M5 from Birmingham to Bristol and the South West.<sup id="cite_ref-roads_119-2" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> <span class="mw-redirect">Bus transport</span> across the country is common, major companies include National Express, Arriva and Go-Ahead Group. The red double-decker buses in London have become a symbol of England. There is a <span class="mw-redirect">rapid rail</span> network in two English cities; the London Underground and the Tyne and Wear Metro, the latter in Newcastle, Gateshead and Sunderland.<sup id="cite_ref-pubwhite_120-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> There are tram networks, such as; Blackpool, Manchester Metrolink, <span class="mw-redirect">Sheffield Supertram</span> and Midland Metro.<sup id="cite_ref-pubwhite_120-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <div style="font-weight: bold; font-family: georgia;" class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 402px; height: 303px;" alt="Light from sunset reflected over buildings and gray concrete." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Sunset_at_Heathrow_on_Christmas.jpg/180px-Sunset_at_Heathrow_on_Christmas.jpg" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> <span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">London Heathrow Airport has more international passenger traffic than any other airport in the world.</span><sup id="cite_ref-airports_121-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></div> </div> </div> <p style="font-weight: bold; font-family: georgia;"><span class="mw-redirect">Rail transport in England</span> is the oldest in the world, with the system originating there in 1825.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Much of Britain's 16,116 kilometres (10,014 mi) of rail network lies in England, covering the country extensively.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> These lines are mostly single, double or quadruple track, though there are narrow gauge lines. There is rail transport access to France and Belgium through an undersea rail link, the Channel Tunnel which was completed in 1994. There are <span class="mw-redirect">air transport</span> facilities in England connected the public to numerous international locations, the largest airport is London Heathrow Airport which in terms of passenger volume in the busiest in Europe and one of busiest in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-airports_121-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Other large airports include Manchester Airport, London Stansted Airport, <span class="mw-redirect">Luton Airport</span> and <span class="mw-redirect">Birmingham International Airport</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-airports_121-2" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> By sea there is ferry transport, both for internal and external trips, some of the most common links are to Ireland, the Netherlands and Belgium.<sup id="cite_ref-waterworks_124-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Travel by waterways such as rivers, canals, docks is common with around 7,100 km (4,400 mi) of navigable waterways in England, half of which is owned by British Waterways.<sup id="cite_ref-waterworks_124-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The Thames is the major waterway in England, with imports and exports focused at the Port of Tilbury, one of the UK's three major ports.<sup id="cite_ref-waterworks_124-2" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <div style="font-weight: bold; font-family: georgia;" class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 192px;"> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="image"><img style="width: 353px; height: 238px;" alt="Red brick building partially obscured by trees." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Queen%27s_Avenue_Surgery%2C_Dorchester.jpg/190px-Queen%27s_Avenue_Surgery%2C_Dorchester.jpg" class="thumbimage" /></span></div> <span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">Local NHS surgeries, such as this facility in Dorchester, Dorset, are available throughout England.</span></div> </div> </div> <p style="font-weight: bold; font-family: georgia;">The National Health Service (NHS) is the publicly funded healthcare system in England responsible for providing the majority of healthcare in the country. The NHS began on 5 July 1948, putting into effect the provisions of the National Health Service Act 1946. It was based on the findings of the Beveridge Report, prepared by economist and social reformer William Beveridge.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The NHS is largely funded from general taxation including National Insurance payments,<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> it provides most services at no additional cost though there are extra charges associated with eye tests, dental care, prescriptions and aspects of personal care.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The government department responsible for the NHS is the Department of Health, headed by the Secretary of State for Health, who sits in the British Cabinet. Most of the expenditure of the Department of Health is spent on the NHS—£98.6 billion was spent in 2008-2009.<sup id="cite_ref-budget2008_128-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> In recent years the private sector has been increasingly used to provide more NHS services despite opposition by doctors and trade unions.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The average life expectancy of people in England is 77.5 years for males and 81.7 years for females, the highest of the four countries of the United Kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p>ASIRIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17636241458666084264noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3688881988590107112.post-20920355912293080992009-11-01T04:10:00.000-08:002009-11-01T04:13:29.288-08:00Demography<h3 style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"><span class="mw-headline" id="Population">Population</span></h3> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: Demography of England, English people, and <span class="mw-redirect">English diaspora</span></div> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 162px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 405px; height: 491px;" alt="Map of England with regions shaded in different shades of blue." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/England_counties_population_%28crop%29.png/160px-England_counties_population_%28crop%29.png" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> <span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">Population of English ceremonial counties</span></div> </div> </div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">With over 51 million inhabitants, England is the most populous country of the United Kingdom, accounting for 84% of the combined total.<sup id="cite_ref-Population_131-0" class="reference"><span>[</span>130<span>]</span></sup> England taken as a unit and measured against international states has the fourth largest population in the European Union and would be the 25th largest country by population in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><span>[</span>131<span>]</span></sup> With a density of 395 people per square kilometre, it would be the second most densely populated country in the European Union after Malta.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The English people are a British people<sup id="cite_ref-ethnicityengl_2-1" class="reference"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></sup>—genetic evidence suggests that 75–95% descend in the paternal line from prehistoric settlers who originally came from the Iberian Peninsula.<sup id="cite_ref-opp_135-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> There is a significant <span class="mw-redirect">Norse</span> element, as well as a 5% contribution from Angles and Saxons,<sup id="cite_ref-opp_135-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> though other geneticists place the Norse-Germanic estimate up to half.<sup id="cite_ref-UKmaybe_138-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Over time various cultures have been influential—Prehistoric, Brythonic,<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><span>[</span>139<span>]</span></sup> Roman, <span class="mw-redirect">Anglo-Saxon</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><span>[</span>140<span>]</span></sup> Norse Viking,<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><span>[</span>141<span>]</span></sup> Gaelic cultures, as well as a large influence from Normans. There is an English diaspora in former parts of the British Empire; especially the United States, Canada, Australia, Chile, South Africa and New Zealand.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Since the late 1990s, English people have migrated to Spain<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Leave_149-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 396px; height: 271px;" alt="Pie chart with main body in blue and multiple smaller segments in other colours." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Ethnicity_in_England_%282005_chart%29.png/180px-Ethnicity_in_England_%282005_chart%29.png" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);" class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> 2005 estimates of ethnic groups in England</div> </div> </div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">At the time of the <i>Domesday Book</i>, compiled in 1086, more than 90% of the English population of about two million lived in the countryside.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> By 1801 the population had grown to 8.3 million, and by 1901 had grown to 30.5 million.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Due to the economic prosperity in South East England there are many economic migrants from the other parts of the United Kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-ethnicityengl_2-2" class="reference"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></sup> There has been significant Irish migration, with 25% of English people having Irish ancestry.<sup id="cite_ref-migra_152-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The European population totals at 89.90%, including <span class="mw-redirect">Germans</span><sup id="cite_ref-migra_152-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> and<sup id="cite_ref-ethnicityengl_2-3" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup>Other people from much further afield in the former British colonies have arrived since the 1950s—5.30% of people living in England have migrated from the Indian subcontinent, mostly India and Pakistan.<sup id="cite_ref-ethnicityengl_2-4" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-migra_152-2" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> 2.30% of the population are black, mostly from the Caribbean.<sup id="cite_ref-ethnicityengl_2-5" class="reference"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-migra_152-3" class="reference"><span>[</span>150<span>]</span></sup> There is a significant number of Chinese and British Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-ethnicityengl_2-6" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-migra_152-4" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> As of 2007, 22% of primary school children in England were from ethnic minority families.<sup id="cite_ref-Paton_153-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> About half of the population increase between 1991–2001 was due to <span class="mw-redirect">foreign-born</span> immigration.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup>Debate over immigration is politically prominent,<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup>according to a Home Office poll 80% of people want to cap it.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The ONS has projected that the population will grow by six million between 2004 and 2029.<sup id="cite_ref-increase_157-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <h3 style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"><span class="mw-headline" id="Language">Language</span></h3> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: English language and <span class="mw-redirect">History of the English language</span></div> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 202px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 387px; height: 199px;" alt="Map of the world with the United Kingdom, Australia and North America shown in dark blue, with areas of Africa and Asia in light blue." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Anglospeak.svg/200px-Anglospeak.svg.png" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> <span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">Distribution of the English language</span><sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></div> </div> </div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">As its name suggests, the English language, today spoken by hundreds of millions of people around the world, originated as the language of England, where it remains the principal tongue today. An Indo-European language in the Anglo-Frisian branch of the Germanic family, it is closely related to Scots.<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> After the <span class="mw-redirect">Norman conquest</span>, the <span class="mw-redirect">Old English language</span> was displaced and confined to the lower social classes as Norman French and Latin were used by the aristocracy. By the 17th century, English came back into fashion among all classes, though much changed; the Middle English form showed many signs of French influence, both in vocabulary and spelling. During the English Renaissance, many words were coined from Latin and <span class="mw-redirect">Greek</span> origins.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Modern English has extended this custom of flexibility, when it comes to incorporating words from different languages. Thanks in large part to the British Empire, the English language is the world's unofficial <i>lingua franca</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;"><span class="mw-redirect">English language learning and teaching</span> is an important economic activity, and includes <span class="mw-redirect">language schooling</span>, tourism spending, and publishing. There is no legislation mandating an official language for England,<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><span>[</span>160<span>]</span></sup> but English is the only language used for official business. Despite the country's relatively small size, there are many distinct <span class="mw-redirect">regional accents</span>, and individuals with particularly strong accents may not be easily understood everywhere in the country. Cornish, which died out as a community language in the 18th century, is being revived,<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><span>[</span>161<span>]</span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><span>[</span>162<span>]</span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><span>[</span>163<span>]</span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><span>[</span>164<span>]</span></sup> and is now protected under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><span>[</span>165<span>]</span></sup> It is spoken by 0.1% of people in Cornwall,<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> and is taught to some degree in several primary and secondary schools.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup>State schools teach students a second language, usually French, German or Spanish.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Due to immigration, it was reported in 2007 that around 800,000 school students spoke a foreign language at home,<sup id="cite_ref-Paton_153-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> the most common being Punjabi and Urdu.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p>ASIRIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17636241458666084264noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3688881988590107112.post-75373436846090040362009-11-01T04:08:00.000-08:002009-11-01T04:10:15.205-08:00Education<h3 style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(204, 0, 0);"><span class="mw-headline" id="Universities_and_learning_institutions">Universities and learning institutions</span></h3> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 364px; height: 274px;" alt="Yellow stone buildings with columns around a grassy courtyard." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Christ_Church_%28Oxford%29.jpg/180px-Christ_Church_%28Oxford%29.jpg" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> <span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">Christ Church, University of Oxford</span></div> </div> </div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">The body responsible for <span class="mw-redirect">state education</span> in general up to the age of 19, in the United Kingdom is the Department for Children, Schools and Families—this body directly controls state schools in England.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Funded through <span class="mw-redirect">taxation</span> state-run schools are attended by approximately 93% of English schoolchildren.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> There is a minority of faith schools, mostly Church of England or Catholic Church. Between three and four is nursery school, four and eleven is primary school, and eleven to sixteen is secondary school, with an option for a two-year extension to attend sixth form college. Although most English secondary schools are comprehensive, there are selective intake grammar schools, to which entrance is subject to passing the eleven plus exam. Around 7.2% of English schoolchildren attend private schools, which are funded by private sources.<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Standards are monitored by regular inspections of state-funded schools by the <span class="mw-redirect">Office for Standards in Education</span> and of private schools by the Independent Schools Inspectorate.<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 375px; height: 283px;" alt="Large yellow stone building with an arched window and two towers at the end nearest the photographer. In the foreground is grass and water with people in a punt." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/KingsCollegeChapelWest.jpg/180px-KingsCollegeChapelWest.jpg" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 153);">King's College, University of Cambridge</span></div> </div> </div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">After finishing compulsory education, pupils take a GCSE examination, following which they may decide to continue in further education and attend a further education college. Students normally enter universities in the United Kingdom from 18 onwards, where they study for an academic degree. England has more than 90 state-funded universities, which are monitored by the Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills.<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Students are generally entitled to student loans for maintenance.<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup>The first degree offered to undergraduates is the Bachelor's degree, which usually takes three years to complete. Students are then eligible for a <span class="mw-redirect">postgraduate</span> degree, a Master's degree, taking one year, or a <span class="mw-redirect">Doctorate degree</span>, which takes three. England has a history of promoting education, and its top institutions are internationally respected.<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The most acclaimed English universities are <span class="mw-redirect">Oxford</span> and <span class="mw-redirect">Cambridge</span>. The King's School, Canterbury and The King's School, Rochester are the oldest schools in the English-speaking world.<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Many of England's more well-known schools, such as Winchester College, Eton College, St Paul's School, Rugby School, and Harrow School are fee-paying institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <h3 style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(204, 0, 0);"><span class="mw-headline" id="Science.2C_engineering_and_innovation">Science, engineering and innovation</span></h3> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: English inventions and discoveries and Royal Society</div> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 152px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 320px; height: 388px;" alt="Torso of man with long white hair and dark coloured jacket" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Sir_Isaac_Newton_%281643-1727%29.jpg/150px-Sir_Isaac_Newton_%281643-1727%29.jpg" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);" class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> Sir Isaac Newton is one of the most influential figures in the history of science.</div> </div> </div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">Prominent English figures from the field of science and mathematics include Sir Isaac Newton, Michael Faraday, Robert Hooke, Robert Boyle, Joseph Priestley, J. J. Thomson, Charles Babbage, Charles Darwin, Stephen Hawking, Christopher Wren, Alan Turing, Francis Crick, Joseph Lister, Tim Berners-Lee, Andrew Wiles and Richard Dawkins. Experts claim that the earliest concept of a metric system was invented by John Wilkins, first secretary of the Royal Society in 1668.<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> As birthplace of the Industrial Revolution, England was home to many significant inventors during the late 18th and early 19th century. Famous English engineers include Isambard Kingdom Brunel, best known for the creation of the Great Western Railway, a series of famous <span class="mw-redirect">steamships</span>, and numerous important bridges, hence revolutionising public transport and modern-day engineering.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">Inventions and discoveries of the English include; the first industrial spinning machine, the first computer and the first modern computer, the World Wide Web along with <span class="mw-redirect">HTTP</span> and HTML, the first successful human blood transfusion, the vacuum cleaner, the <span class="mw-redirect">lawnmower</span>, the seat belt, the hovercraft, the electric motor, the microphone, steam engines, and theories such as the <span class="mw-redirect">Darwinian theory of evolution</span> and atomic theory.<sup id="cite_ref-invent_185-0" class="reference"><span>[</span>181<span>]</span></sup> Newton developed the ideas of <span class="mw-redirect">universal gravitation</span>, <span class="mw-redirect">Newtonian mechanics</span>, and infinitesimal calculus, and Robert Hooke his eponymously named <span class="mw-redirect">law of elasticity</span>. Other inventions include the iron plate <span class="mw-redirect">railway</span>, the thermosiphon, <span class="mw-redirect">tarmac</span>, the rubber band, the mousetrap, "cat's eye" road safety device, joint development of the <span class="mw-redirect">light bulb</span>, steam locomotives, the seed drill, the jet engine and many modern techniques and technologies used in precision engineering.<sup id="cite_ref-invent_185-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p>ASIRIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17636241458666084264noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3688881988590107112.post-57288867837239457522009-11-01T04:07:00.000-08:002009-11-01T04:08:37.675-08:00Religion<p style="font-weight: bold;">Christianity is the most widely practised religion in England, as it has been since the Early Middle Ages, although it was first introduced much earlier, in Gaelic and Roman times. It continued through Early Insular Christianity, and today about 71.6% of English people identify as Christians.<sup id="cite_ref-statsio_186-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The largest form practiced in the present day is Anglicanism,<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> dating from the 16th century Reformation period, with the 1536 split from Rome over <span class="mw-redirect">Henry VIII</span> wanting to divorce Catherine of Aragon, the religion regards itself as both Catholic and <span class="mw-redirect">Reformed</span>. There are <span class="mw-redirect">High Church</span> and <span class="mw-redirect">Low Church</span> traditions, and some Anglicans regard themselves as <span class="mw-redirect">Anglo-Catholics</span>, after the <span class="mw-redirect">Tractarian movement</span>. The monarch of the United Kingdom is the head of the Church, acting as its Supreme Governor. It has the status of <span class="mw-redirect">established church</span> in England. There are around 26 million adherents to the Church of England and they form part of the Anglican Communion with the Archbishop of Canterbury acting as the symbolic worldwide head.<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Many cathedrals and parish churches are historic buildings of significant architectural importance, such as Westminster Abbey, York Minster, Durham Cathedral and Salisbury Cathedral.</p> <div style="font-weight: bold;" class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 152px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 285px; height: 325px;" alt="Painting of man in armour on white horse fighting black dragon to his left." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Raphael_-_Saint_George_Fighting_the_Dragon.jpg/150px-Raphael_-_Saint_George_Fighting_the_Dragon.jpg" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);" class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> Saint George, the patron saint of England</div> </div> </div> <p style="font-weight: bold;">The second largest Christian practice is the Latin Rite of the Catholic Church, which traces its formal, corporate history in England to the 6th century with Augustine's mission and was the main religion on the entire island for around a thousand years. Since its reintroduction after the Catholic Emancipation, the Church has organised ecclesiastically on an <span class="mw-redirect">England and Wales</span> basis where there are 4.5 million members (most of whom are English).<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> There has been one Pope from England to date, Adrian IV; while saints Bede and Anslem are regarded as <span class="mw-redirect">Doctors of the Church</span>. A form of Protestantism known as Methodism is the third largest and grew out of Anglicanism through John Wesley.<sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> It gained popularity in the mill towns of Lancashire and Yorkshire, and amongst tin miners in Cornwall.<sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> There are other <span class="mw-redirect">non-conformist</span> minorities, such as <span class="mw-redirect">Baptists</span>, <span class="mw-redirect">Quakers</span>, Congregationalists, Unitarians and the <span class="mw-redirect">Salvation Army</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-192" class="reference"><span>[</span>188<span>]</span></sup></p> <p style="font-weight: bold;">The patron saint of England is Saint George, he is represented in the national flag, as well as the Union Flag as part of a combination.<sup id="cite_ref-flaghistory_193-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-flaghistory_193-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> There are many other English and associated saints, some of the best known include; Cuthbert, Alban, <span class="mw-redirect">Wilfrid</span>, Aidan, Edward the Confessor, John Fisher, Thomas More, Petroc, Piran, Margaret Clitherow and Thomas Becket.<sup id="cite_ref-britsaints_194-0" class="reference"><span>[</span>190<span>]</span></sup> There are non-Christian religions practiced. <span class="mw-redirect">Jews</span> have a history of a small minority on the island since 1070.<sup id="cite_ref-jews_195-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> They were expelled from England in 1290 following the Edict of Expulsion, only to be allowed back in 1656.<sup id="cite_ref-jews_195-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Especially since the 1950s Eastern religions from the former British colonies have began to appear, due to foreign immigration; Islam is the most common of these accounting for around 3.1% in England.<sup id="cite_ref-statsio_186-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Hinduism, Sikhism and Buddhism are next in number adding up to 2% combined,<sup id="cite_ref-statsio_186-2" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> introduced from India and <span class="mw-redirect">South East Asia</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-statsio_186-3" class="reference"><span>[</span>182<span>]</span></sup> Around 14.6% claim to have no religion.<sup id="cite_ref-statsio_186-4" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Prior to the rise of Christianity—Celtic, <span class="mw-redirect">Roman</span>, <span class="mw-redirect">Anglo-Saxon</span> and Norse mythology was practised.</p>ASIRIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17636241458666084264noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3688881988590107112.post-60881751857966672712009-11-01T04:03:00.002-08:002009-11-01T04:07:09.440-08:00Culture<h3 style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(204, 0, 0);"><span class="mw-headline" id="Architecture">Architecture</span></h3> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 152px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 306px; height: 455px;" alt="White stone building with tower topped with a dome. In the foreground are trees and a red rectangular vertical box with windows." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/St_Pauls_Cathedral%2C_London.jpg/150px-St_Pauls_Cathedral%2C_London.jpg" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);" class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> <span class="mw-redirect">St. Paul's Cathedral</span>, English Baroque</div> </div> </div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">Many ancient standing stone monuments were erected during the prehistoric period, amongst the best known are Stonehenge, Devil's Arrows, Rudston Monolith and Castlerigg.<sup id="cite_ref-196" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> With the introduction of <span class="mw-redirect">Ancient Roman architecture</span> there was a development of <span class="mw-redirect">basilicas</span>, <span class="mw-redirect">baths</span>, <span class="mw-redirect">amphitheaters</span>, triumphal arches, <span class="mw-redirect">villas</span>, Roman temples, <span class="mw-redirect">Roman roads</span>, <span class="mw-redirect">Roman forts</span>, stockades and aqueducts.<sup id="cite_ref-roman_197-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> It was the Romans who founded the first cities and towns such as London, Bath, York, Chester and St Albans. Perhaps the best known example is Hadrian's Wall stretching right across northern England<sup id="cite_ref-roman_197-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Another well preserved example is the Roman Baths at Bath, Somerset.<sup id="cite_ref-roman_197-2" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Early Medieval architecture's secular buildings were simple constructions mainly using <span class="mw-redirect">timber</span> with <span class="mw-redirect">thatch</span> for roofing. Ecclesiastical architecture ranged from a synthesis of <span class="mw-redirect">Hiberno</span>—Saxon monasticism,<sup id="cite_ref-198" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-199" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> to Early Christian basilica and architecture characterised by pilaster-strips, blank arcading, baluster shafts and triangular headed openings. After the Norman conquest in 1066 various <span class="mw-redirect">Castles in England</span> were created so law lords could uphold their authority and in the north to protect from invasion. Some of the best known medieval castles include the Tower of London, Warwick Castle, Durham Castle and Windsor Castle amongst others.<sup id="cite_ref-buildings_200-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 302px; height: 206px;" alt="Yellow stone tower with two circular turrets which run the height of the building." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Broadway_tower_edit.jpg/180px-Broadway_tower_edit.jpg" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> is a <span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">The Broadway Towerfolly, or mock tower, in Worcestershire.</span></div> </div> </div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">Throughout the Plantagenet era an English Gothic architecture flourished—the medieval cathedrals such as Canterbury Cathedral, Westminster Abbey and York Minster are prime examples.<sup id="cite_ref-buildings_200-1" class="reference"><span>[</span>196<span>]</span></sup> Expanding on the Norman base there was also castles, palaces, great houses, universities and parish churches. Medieval architecture was completed with the 16th century Tudor style; the four-centred arch, now known as the Tudor arch, was a defining feature as were wattle and daub houses domestically. In the aftermath of the Renaissance a form of architecture echoing classical antiquity, synthesised with Christianity appeared—the English Baroque style, architect Christopher Wren was particularly championed.<sup id="cite_ref-201" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Georgian architecture followed in a more refined style, evoking a simple Palladian form; the Royal Crescent at Bath is one of the best examples of this. With the emergence of romanticism during Victorian period, a <span class="mw-redirect">Gothic Revival</span> was launched—in addition to this around the same time the Industrial Revolution paved the way for buildings such as The Crystal Palace. Since the 1930s various <span class="mw-redirect">modernist</span> forms have appeared whose reception is often controversial, though traditionalist resistance movements continue with support in influential places.<sup id="cite_ref-203" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <h3 style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(204, 0, 0);"><span class="mw-headline" id="Folklore">Folklore</span></h3> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);" class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: English folklore</div> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 142px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 372px; height: 542px;" alt=""Robin shoots with Sir Guy"" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Robin_shoots_with_sir_Guy_by_Louis_Rhead_1912.png/140px-Robin_shoots_with_sir_Guy_by_Louis_Rhead_1912.png" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);" class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> Robin Hood illustrated in 1912 by Louis Rhead.</div> </div> </div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">English folklore developed over many centuries. Some of the characters and stories are present across England, but most belong to specific regions. Common folkloric beings include pixies, giants, elfs, <span class="mw-redirect">bogeymen</span>, trolls, goblins and <span class="mw-redirect">dwarves</span>. While many legends and folk-customs are thought to be ancient, for instance the tales featuring <span class="mw-redirect">Offa of Angeln</span> and <span class="mw-redirect">Weyland Smith</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-keary_204-0" class="reference"><span>[</span>199<span>]</span></sup> others date from after the Norman invasion; Robin Hood and his Merry Men of Sherwood and their battles with the Sheriff of Nottingham being, perhaps, the best known.<sup id="cite_ref-205" class="reference"><span>[</span>200<span>]</span></sup> During the High Middle Ages tales originating from Brythonic traditions entered English folklore—the <span class="mw-redirect">Arthurian myth</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-woodbbc_206-0" class="reference"><span>[</span>201<span>]</span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-higham1_207-0" class="reference"><span>[</span>202<span>]</span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-208" class="reference"><span>[</span>203<span>]</span></sup> These were derived from Anglo-Norman, French and Welsh sources,<sup id="cite_ref-higham1_207-1" class="reference"><span>[</span>202<span>]</span></sup> featuring King Arthur, Camelot, Excalibur, Merlin and the Knights of the Round Table such as Lancelot. These stories are most centrally brought together within Geoffrey of Monmouth's <i>Historia Regum Britanniae</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-210" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Another early figure from <span class="mw-redirect">British tradition</span>, King Cole, may have been based on a real figure from Sub-Roman Britain. Many of the tales and <span class="mw-redirect">pseudo-histories</span> make up part of the wider Matter of Britain, a collection of shared British folklore.</p> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 195px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 481px; height: 363px;" alt="Men in bright red clothing holding sticks in the air." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Morris_men.jpg/193px-Morris_men.jpg" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> <span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">Morris dance, an English folk dance</span></div> </div> </div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">Some folk figures are based on semi or actual historical people whose story has been passed down centuries; Lady Godiva for instance was said to have ridden naked on horseback through Coventry, Hereward the Wake was a heroic English figure resisting the Norman invasion, Herne the Hunter is an equestrian ghost associated with Windsor Forest and Great Park and Mother Shipton is the archetypal witch.<sup id="cite_ref-211" class="reference"><span>[</span>205<span>]</span></sup> On 5 November people make bonfires, set off <span class="mw-redirect">fireworks</span> and eat <span class="mw-redirect">toffee apples</span> in commemoration of the Gunpowder Plot centred around Guy Fawkes. The chivalrous bandit, such as Dick Turpin, is a recurring character, while Blackbeard is the archetypal pirate. There are various national and regional folk activities, participated in to this day, such as <span class="mw-redirect">Morris dancing</span>, Maypole dancing, Rapper sword in the North East, Long Sword dance in Yorkshire, Mummers Plays, bottle-kicking in Leicestershire, and cheese-rolling at Cooper's Hill.<sup id="cite_ref-212" class="reference"><span>[</span>206<span>]</span></sup> There is no official national costume, but a few are well established such as the Pearly Kings and Queens associated with cockneys, the Royal Guard, the Morris costume and <span class="mw-redirect">Beefeaters</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-213" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <h3 style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"><span class="mw-headline" id="Cuisine">Cuisine</span></h3> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: English cuisine</div> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 361px; height: 264px;" alt="A plate of fish and chips, with salad, dip, lemon slices and a glass of water." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Fish_and_chips_%28crop%29.jpg/180px-Fish_and_chips_%28crop%29.jpg" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> <span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">Fish and chips is a widely consumed part of English cuisine.</span></div> </div> </div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">Since the <span class="mw-redirect">Early Modern Period</span> the food of England has historically been characterised by its simplicity of approach, honesty of flavour, and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce.<sup id="cite_ref-214" class="reference"><span>[</span>208<span>]</span></sup> During the Middle Ages and through the Renaissance period, English cuisine enjoyed an excellent reputation, though a decline began during the Industrial Revolution with the move away from the land and increasing urbanisation of the populace. The French sometimes referred to English people as <i>les rosbifs</i>, as a stereotype to suggest English food is unsophisticated or crude.<sup id="cite_ref-215" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The cuisine of England has, however, recently undergone a revival, which has been recognised by the food critics with some good ratings in <i>Restaurant'</i>s <span class="mw-redirect">best restaurant in the world</span> charts.<sup id="cite_ref-216" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> An early book of English recipes is the <i>Forme of Cury</i> from the royal court of Richard II.<sup id="cite_ref-217" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 172px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 296px; height: 204px;" alt="An apple pie on a red table cloth, with green apples next to it." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Apple_pie.jpg/170px-Apple_pie.jpg" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> <span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">Apple pie has been consumed in England since the Middle Ages.</span></div> </div> </div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">Traditional examples of English food include the Sunday roast; featuring a roasted joint, usually beef, lamb or chicken, served with assorted boiled vegetables, Yorkshire pudding and gravy.<sup id="cite_ref-tradfood_218-0" class="reference"><span>[</span>212<span>]</span></sup> Other prominent meals include fish and chips and the full English breakfast—consisting of bacon, grilled tomatoes, fried bread, black pudding, baked beans, fried <span class="mw-redirect">mushrooms</span>, sausages and eggs. Various meat pies are consumed such as steak and kidney pie, <span class="mw-redirect">shepherd's pie</span>, cottage pie, <span class="mw-redirect">Cornish pasty</span> and pork pie, the later of which is consumed cold.<sup id="cite_ref-tradfood_218-1" class="reference"><span>[</span>212<span>]</span></sup> Sausages are commonly eaten, either as bangers and mash or toad in the hole. Lancashire hotpot is a well known stew. Some of the most popular cheeses are Cheddar and Wensleydale. Many Anglo-Indian hybrid dishes, <span class="mw-redirect">curries</span>, have been created such as chicken tikka masala and balti. Sweet English dishes include apple pie, mince pies, spotted dick, <span class="mw-redirect">scones</span>, Eccles cakes, custard and sticky toffee pudding. Common drinks include tea, which became far more widely drunk due to Catherine of Braganza,<sup id="cite_ref-219" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> while alcoholic drinks include wines and <span class="mw-redirect">English beers</span> such as bitter, mild, stout, and brown ale.<sup id="cite_ref-220" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <h3 style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"><span class="mw-headline" id="Visual_arts">Visual arts</span></h3> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: English art and Arts Council England</div> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 202px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 359px; height: 251px;" alt="A painting of a red haired woman, sitting in a boat, surrounded by trees." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Lady_of_Shalott.jpg/200px-Lady_of_Shalott.jpg" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> <i style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">The Lady of Shalott</i><span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);"> by John William Waterhouse in the </span><span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);" class="mw-redirect">Pre-Raphaelite</span><span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);"> style.</span></div> </div> </div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">The earliest known examples are the prehistoric rock and <span class="mw-redirect">cave art</span> pieces, most prominent in North Yorkshire, Northumberland and Cumbria, but also feature further south, for example at Creswell Crags.<sup id="cite_ref-221" class="reference"><span>[</span>215<span>]</span></sup> With the arrival of <span class="mw-redirect">Roman culture</span> in the 1st century, various forms of art utilising statues, busts, glasswork and mosaics were the norm. There are numerous surviving artefacts, such as those at Lullingstone and Aldborough.<sup id="cite_ref-222" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> During the Early Middle Ages the style was sculpted crosses and ivories, manuscript painting, gold and enamel jewellery, demonstrating a love of intricate, interwoven designs such as in the Staffordshire Hoard discovered in 2009. Some of these blended Gaelic and Anglian styles, such as the Lindisfarne Gospels and Vespasian Psalter.<sup id="cite_ref-223" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Later Gothic art was popular at Winchester and Canterbury, examples survive such as Benedictional of St. Æthelwold and Luttrell Psalter.<sup id="cite_ref-engart_224-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">The Tudor era saw prominent artists as part of their court, portrait painting which would remain an enduring part of English art, was boosted by German Hans Holbein, natives such as Nicholas Hilliard built on this.<sup id="cite_ref-engart_224-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Under the Stuarts, Continental artists were influential especially the Flemish, examples from the period include—Anthony van Dyck, Peter Lely, Godfrey Kneller and William Dobson.<sup id="cite_ref-engart_224-2" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The 18th century was a time of significance with the founding of the Royal Academy, a classicism based on the <span class="mw-redirect">High Renaissance</span> prevailed—Thomas Gainsborough and Joshua Reynolds became two of England's most treasured artists.<sup id="cite_ref-engart_224-3" class="reference"><span>[</span>218<span>]</span></sup> The Norwich School continued the landscape tradition, while the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood with their vivid and detailed style revived the <span class="mw-redirect">Early Renaissance</span> style—<span class="mw-redirect">Holman Hunt</span>, Dante Gabriel Rossetti and John Everett Millais were leaders.<sup id="cite_ref-engart_224-4" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Prominent amongst twentieth century artists was Henry Moore, regarded as the voice of British sculpture, and of British modernism in general.<sup id="cite_ref-225" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Contemporary painters include Lucian Freud, whose work <i>Benefits Supervisor Sleeping</i> in 2008 set a world record for sale value of a painting by a living artist.<sup id="cite_ref-226" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <h3 style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"><span class="mw-headline" id="Literature.2C_poetry_and_philosophy">Literature, poetry and philosophy</span></h3> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(51, 51, 255);" class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: English literature</div> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 147px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 305px; height: 380px;" alt="A man dressed in grey with a beard, holding a rosary, depicted next to a coat of arms." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Geoffrey_Chaucer_%2817th_century%29.jpg/145px-Geoffrey_Chaucer_%2817th_century%29.jpg" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);" class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> Geoffrey Chaucer was an English author, poet and philosopher, best remembered for his unfinished frame narrative <i>The Canterbury Tales</i>.</div> </div> </div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">Early authors wrote in Latin such as Bede and Alcuin.<sup id="cite_ref-warnancmod_227-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> While the period of <span class="mw-redirect">Old English literature</span> provided the epic poem <i>Beowulf</i>, the secular prose the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,<sup id="cite_ref-228" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> along with Christian writings such as <i>Judith</i>, Cædmon's <i>Hymn</i> and saintly hagiographies.<sup id="cite_ref-warnancmod_227-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Following the Norman conquest Latin continued amongst the educated classes, as well as an Anglo-Norman literature. Middle English literature emerged with Geoffrey Chaucer author of <i>The Canterbury Tales</i>, along with Gower, the Pearl Poet and Langland. <span class="mw-redirect">Franciscans</span>, William of Ockham and Roger Bacon were major <span class="mw-redirect">philosophers</span> of the Middle Ages. Julian of Norwich with her <i>Revelations of Divine Love</i> was a prominent Christian mystic. With the English Renaissance literature in the Early Modern English style appeared. William Shakespeare, whose works include <i>Hamlet</i>, <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>, <i>Macbeth</i>, and <i>A Midsummer Night's Dream</i>, remains one of the most championed authors in English literature.<sup id="cite_ref-229" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Marlowe, Spenser, <span class="mw-redirect">Sydney</span>, Kyd, Donne, Jonson are other established authors of the Elizabethan age.<sup id="cite_ref-elizren_230-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes wrote on empiricism and materialism, including scientific method and social contract.<sup id="cite_ref-elizren_230-1" class="reference"><span>[</span>224<span>]</span></sup> Filmer wrote on the <span class="mw-redirect">Divine Right of Kings</span>. Marvell was the best known poet of the Commonwealth,<sup id="cite_ref-231" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> while John Milton authored <i>Paradise Lost</i> during the Restoration.</p> <table style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); margin: 0.5em 0pt 0.8em 1.4em; padding: 4px; background: rgb(249, 249, 249) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; width: 28%; font-size: 90%; float: right; clear: right; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="4"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align: left;"> <div>This royal throne of kings, this sceptred isle, this earth of majesty, this seat of Mars, this other Eden, demi-paradise; this fortress, built by nature for herself. This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England.</div> <div style="text-align: right;">—William Shakespeare.<sup id="cite_ref-232" class="reference"><span>[</span>226<span>]</span></sup></div> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">Some of the most prominent philosophers from the Enlightenment were Locke, Paine, Johnson and Benthem. More radical elements were later countered by Edmund Burke who is regarded as the founder of conservatism.<sup id="cite_ref-233" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The poet Alexander Pope with his satirical verse became well regarded. The English played a significant role in romanticism—Coleridge, <span class="mw-redirect">Byron</span>, Keats, M Shelley, PB Shelley, Blake and Wordsworth were major figures.<sup id="cite_ref-234" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> In response to the <span class="mw-redirect">Industrial revolution</span>, agrarian writers looked to find a way between liberty and tradition; Cobbett, Chesterton and Belloc were main exponents, while founder of guild socialism, Penty and <span class="mw-redirect">cooperative movement</span> advocate Cole are somewhat related.<sup id="cite_ref-235" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Empiricism continued through Mill and Russell, while Williams was involved in analytics. Authors from around the time of the Victorian era include Dickens, the <span class="mw-redirect">Brontë sisters</span>, Austen, Kipling, Wells, and Underhill.<sup id="cite_ref-236" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Since then England has continued to produce novelists such as C. S. Lewis, Orwell, Blyton, Christie, Tolkien, and J. K. Rowling.<sup id="cite_ref-237" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p>ASIRIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17636241458666084264noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3688881988590107112.post-11331061727277752192009-11-01T04:01:00.000-08:002009-11-01T04:02:40.162-08:00Museums, libraries, and galleries<p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">English Heritage is a governmental body with a broad remit of managing the historic sites, artefacts and environments of England. It is currently sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. The charity National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty holds a contrasting role. Seventeen of the twenty-five United Kingdom UNESCO World Heritage Sites fall within England.<sup id="cite_ref-245" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Some of the best known of these include; Hadrian's Wall, Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites, Tower of London, Jurassic Coast, Saltaire, Ironbridge Gorge, Studley Royal Park and various others.<sup id="cite_ref-246" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> There are many <span class="mw-redirect">museums in England</span>, but the most notable is London's British Museum. Its collection of more than seven million objects<sup id="cite_ref-247" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> is one of the largest and most comprehensive in the world,<sup id="cite_ref-248" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> sourced from every continent, illustrating and documenting the story of human culture from its beginning to the present. The British Library in London is the national library and is one of the world's largest <span class="mw-redirect">research libraries</span>, holding over 150 million items in all known languages and formats; including around 25 million books.<sup id="cite_ref-249" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup>The most senior art gallery is the <span class="mw-redirect">National Gallery</span> in Trafalgar Square, which houses a collection of over 2,300 paintings dating from the mid-13th century to 1900.<sup id="cite_ref-250" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The Tate galleries house the national collections of British and international modern art; they also host the famously controversial Turner Prize.<sup id="cite_ref-251" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p>ASIRIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17636241458666084264noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3688881988590107112.post-50119458957133543652009-11-01T03:53:00.000-08:002009-11-01T03:55:23.899-08:00Sports<p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">England has a strong sporting heritage, and during the 19th century codified many sports that are now played around the world. Sports originating in England include association football,<sup id="cite_ref-football_253-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> cricket, rugby union, rugby league, tennis, badminton, squash,<sup id="cite_ref-254" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> rounders,<sup id="cite_ref-255" class="reference"><span>[</span>249<span>]</span></sup> hockey, boxing, snooker, <span class="mw-redirect">billiards</span>, curling, darts, table tennis, bowls, netball, thoroughbred horseracing and fox hunting. It has helped the development of sailing and Formula One. Football is the most popular of these sports. The England national football team, whose home venue is Wembley Stadium, won the FIFA World Cup in <span class="mw-redirect">1966</span>, the year the country hosted the competition. At club level England is recognised by FIFA as the birth-place of club football, due to Sheffield FC founded in 1857 being the oldest club.<sup id="cite_ref-football_253-1" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The Football Association is the oldest of its kind, FA Cup and The Football League were the first cup and league competitions respectively. In the modern day the Premier League is the world's most lucrative football league<sup id="cite_ref-Deloitte2_256-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> and amongst the elite.<sup id="cite_ref-257" class="reference"><span>[</span>251<span>]</span></sup> The European Cup has been won by Liverpool, <span class="mw-redirect">Manchester United</span>, <span class="mw-redirect">Nottingham Forest</span> and <span class="mw-redirect">Aston Villa</span>, while Arsenal, Chelsea and <span class="mw-redirect">Leeds United</span> have reached the final.<sup id="cite_ref-258" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 339px; height: 254px;" alt="Men in cricket whites play upon a green grass cricket field amidst a stadium." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Flintoff_bowling_Siddle%2C_2009_Ashes_2.jpg/180px-Flintoff_bowling_Siddle%2C_2009_Ashes_2.jpg" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">England on the way to victory against Australia in the 2009 Ashes series at Lord's Cricket Ground</span></div> </div> </div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">Cricket is generally thought to have been developed in the early medieval period among the farming and metalworking communities of the Weald.<sup id="cite_ref-259" class="reference"><span>[</span>253<span>]</span></sup> The England cricket team is a composite England and Wales team. One of the game's top rivalries is The Ashes series between England and <span class="mw-redirect">Australia</span>, contested since 1882. The finale of the 2009 Ashes was watched by nearly 2 million people, although the climax of the 2005 Ashes was viewed by 7.4 million as it was available on terrestrial television.<sup id="cite_ref-260" class="reference"><span>[</span>254<span>]</span></sup> England are the current holders of the trophy and are fifth in both Test and One Day International cricket.<sup id="cite_ref-261" class="reference"><span>[</span>255<span>]</span></sup> England has hosted four Cricket World Cups (1975, 1979, 1983, 1999) and the ICC World Twenty20 in 2009. There are several domestic level competitions, including the County Championship in which Yorkshire are by far the most successful club having won the competition 31 times.<sup id="cite_ref-262" class="reference"><span>[</span>256<span>]</span></sup> Lord's Cricket Ground situated in London is sometimes referred to as the "Mecca of Cricket".<sup id="cite_ref-263" class="reference"><span>[</span>257<span>]</span></sup> William Penny Brookes was prominent in organising the format for the modern Olympic Games. London hosted the Summer Olympic Games in 1908 and 1948, and will host them again in 2012. England competes in the Commonwealth Games, held every four years. Sport England is the governing body responsible for distributing funds and providing strategic guidance for sporting activity in England. A Grand Prix is held at Silverstone.<sup id="cite_ref-264" class="reference"><span>[</span>258<span>]</span></sup></p> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 278px; height: 219px;" alt="White men in grey suits, pale blue shirts and red ties celebrate upon the top floor of an open-top bus. On man holds a golden trophy in the air with one hand." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/England_world_cup_winners.jpg/180px-England_world_cup_winners.jpg" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);" class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> England rugby union team won the 2003 Rugby World Cup</div> </div> </div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">The England rugby union team won the 2003 Rugby World Cup, the country was one of the host nations of the competition in the 1991 Rugby World Cup and is set to host the 2015 Rugby World Cup.<sup id="cite_ref-265" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The top level of club participation is the English Premiership. Leicester Tigers, London Wasps, Bath Rugby and Northampton Saints have had success in the Europe-wide Heineken Cup. In another form of the sport—rugby league which was born in Huddersfield in 1898, the England national rugby league team are ranked third in the world and first in Europe. Since 2008 England has been a full test nation in lieu of the Great Britain national rugby league team, which won three World Cups but is now retired. Club sides play in Super League, the present-day embodiment of the Rugby Football League Championship. Some of the most successful clubs include Wigan Warriors, <span class="mw-redirect">St Helens</span>, Leeds Rhinos and Huddersfield Giants; the former three have all won the World Club Challenge previously. In tennis the Wimbledon Championships are the oldest tennis tournament in the world and is widely considered the most prestigious<span style="text-decoration: underline;">.</span><sup id="cite_ref-266" class="reference"><span></span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-267" class="reference"><span></span></sup></p>ASIRIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17636241458666084264noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3688881988590107112.post-14143513650723278252009-11-01T03:49:00.001-08:002009-11-01T03:53:46.391-08:00National symbols<h2 style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;"><span class="mw-headline" id="National_symbols"><br /></span></h2> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: National symbols of England</div> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 137px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 314px; height: 345px;" alt="A red shield tapers to its bottom end; on it are three stylised golden lions with blue claws." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/England_COA.svg/135px-England_COA.svg.png" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">England's coat of arms</span></div> </div> </div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">The national flag of England, known as St. George's Cross, has been the national flag since the 13th century. Originally the flag was used by the maritime state the Republic of Genoa. The English monarch paid a tribute to the Doge of Genoa from 1190 onwards, so that English ships could fly the flag as a means of protection when entering the Mediterranean. A red cross acted as a symbol for many Crusaders in the 12th and 13th centuries. It became associated with Saint George, along with countries and cities, which claimed him as their patron saint and used his cross as a banner.<sup id="cite_ref-268" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> Since 1606 the St George's Cross has formed part of the design of the Union Flag, a Pan-British flag designed by King James I.<sup id="cite_ref-flaghistory_193-2" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p> <div style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;" class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 172px;"><span class="image"><img style="width: 455px; height: 383px;" alt="A red and white flower." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Double_Delight_%28Tudor%29_Rose.jpg/170px-Double_Delight_%28Tudor%29_Rose.jpg" class="thumbimage" /></span> <div style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);" class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><span class="internal"><br /></span></div> The Tudor rose, England's <span class="mw-redirect">national floral emblem</span></div> </div> </div> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">There are numerous other symbols and symbolic artefacts, both official and unofficial, including the Tudor rose, the nation's floral emblem, the White Dragon and the <i>Three Lions</i> featured on the nation's coat of arms. The Tudor rose was adopted as a national emblem of England around the time of the Wars of the Roses as a symbol of peace.<sup id="cite_ref-Flowers_269-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> It is a syncretic symbol in that it merged the white rose of the Yorkists and the red rose of the Lancastrians—cadet branches of the Plantagenets who went to war over control of the royal house. It is also known as the <i>Rose of England</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rose_270-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> The oak tree is a symbol of England, representing strength and endurance. The term Royal Oak is used to denote the escape of King Charles II from the grasps of the parliamentarians after his father's execution; he hid in an oak tree to avoid detection before making it safely into exile.</p> <p style="font-family: georgia; font-weight: bold;">The national coat of arms of England, featuring three lions dates back to its adoption by <span class="mw-redirect">Richard the Lionheart</span> from 1198–1340. They are described as <i>gules, three lions passant guardant or</i> and provide one of the most prominent symbols of England; it is similar to the traditional arms of Normandy. England does not have an official designated national anthem, as the United Kingdom as a whole has <i>God Save the Queen</i>. However, the following are often considered unofficial English national anthems: <i><span class="mw-redirect">Jerusalem</span></i>, <i>Land of Hope and Glory</i> (used for England during the 2002 Commonwealth Games),<sup id="cite_ref-271" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup> and <i>I Vow to Thee, My Country</i>. England's National Day is St George's Day, as Saint George is the patron saint of England, it is held annually on 23 April.<sup id="cite_ref-St._George_272-0" class="reference"><span></span><span></span></sup></p>ASIRIhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17636241458666084264noreply@blogger.com0